From Mismatch to Baseline
Comprehensive Sources and References
Overview
This document compiles all evidence, research, and supporting sources for claims made in the framework and supplementary materials. Organized by topic. Where specific citations exist, they're provided. Where claims derive from well-established research traditions, key foundational works are listed. Where gaps exist, they're noted as research opportunities.
PART ONE: EVOLUTIONARY FOUNDATIONS
Evolutionary Psychology: Core Framework
Foundational Works
**Tooby, J. & Cosmides, L. (1990).** "The Past Explains the Present: Emotional Adaptations and the Structure of Ancestral Environments." *Ethology and Sociobiology*, 11(4-5), 375-424.
Establishes framework for understanding emotional systems as adaptations to ancestral environmentsKey source for "emotions as GPS" concept**Tooby, J. & Cosmides, L. (1992).** "The Psychological Foundations of Culture." In Barkow, Cosmides & Tooby (Eds.), *The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and the Generation of Culture*. Oxford University Press.
Foundational text establishing evolutionary psychology paradigmSource for modular mind concept and domain-specific adaptations**Buss, D.M. (2019).** *Evolutionary Psychology: The New Science of the Mind* (6th ed.). Routledge.
Comprehensive textbook covering mate selection, status competition, cooperation, aggressionSource for claims about mate preferences, jealousy, status drives**Pinker, S. (1997).** *How the Mind Works*. W.W. Norton.
Accessible synthesis of evolutionary psychologyCovers emotions, perception, social cognitionSurvival and Reproduction as Ultimate Drivers
**Hamilton, W.D. (1964).** "The Genetical Evolution of Social Behaviour I and II." *Journal of Theoretical Biology*, 7(1), 1-52.
Establishes inclusive fitness theoryFoundation for understanding altruism through kin selection**Trivers, R.L. (1971).** "The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism." *Quarterly Review of Biology*, 46(1), 35-57.
Explains cooperation beyond kinshipFoundation for "reciprocal altruism" concept in framework**Trivers, R.L. (1972).** "Parental Investment and Sexual Selection." In B. Campbell (Ed.), *Sexual Selection and the Descent of Man*. Aldine.
Explains differential parental investment and mate choiceFoundation for understanding mate selection drivesEvolutionary Mismatch Theory
**Eaton, S.B., Konner, M., & Shostak, M. (1988).** "Stone Agers in the Fast Lane: Chronic Degenerative Diseases in Evolutionary Perspective." *American Journal of Medicine*, 84(4), 739-749.
Early articulation of mismatch hypothesis for physical healthExtended to psychological health by later researchers**Nesse, R.M. & Williams, G.C. (1994).** *Why We Get Sick: The New Science of Darwinian Medicine*. Times Books.
Applies evolutionary thinking to medicineDiscusses how modern environment creates health mismatches**Lloyd, E., Wilson, D.S., & Sober, E. (2011).** "Evolutionary Mismatch and What to Do About It: A Basic Tutorial." *Evolutionary Applications*.
Accessible introduction to mismatch conceptFramework for identifying and addressing mismatches**van Vugt, M. & Ronay, R. (2014).** "The Evolutionary Psychology of Leadership: Theory, Review, and Roadmap." *Organizational Psychology Review*, 4(1), 74-95.
Applies mismatch thinking to organizational behaviorSource for leadership and hierarchy mismatch claims**Li, N.P., van Vugt, M., & Colarelli, S.M. (2018).** "The Evolutionary Mismatch Hypothesis: Implications for Psychological Science." *Current Directions in Psychological Science*, 27(1), 38-44.
Recent synthesis of mismatch researchDiscusses psychological consequences of environmental mismatch**Wilson, D.S. (2024).** "Evolutionary Mismatch Tutorial." *Prosocial World*.
Accessible overview of mismatch concept and applications
Interface Theory of Perception
Perception as Fitness-Optimized Dashboard
**Hoffman, D.D. (2019).** *The Case Against Reality: Why Evolution Hid the Truth from Our Eyes*. W.W. Norton.
Argues perception evolved for fitness, not truthSource for "dashboard" metaphor - we perceive what aids survival, not reality as it is**Hoffman, D.D., Singh, M., & Prakash, C. (2015).** "The Interface Theory of Perception." *Psychonomic Bulletin & Review*, 22(6), 1480-1506.
Technical presentation of interface theoryMathematical models showing fitness-optimized perception differs from veridical perception**Mark, J.T., Marion, B.B., & Hoffman, D.D. (2010).** "Natural Selection and Veridical Perceptions." *Journal of Theoretical Biology*, 266(4), 504-515.
Evolutionary simulations showing organisms that perceive reality accurately are outcompeted by those with fitness-tuned perceptionsColor Perception as Constructed
**Palmer, S.E. (1999).** *Vision Science: Photons to Phenomenology*. MIT Press.
Comprehensive coverage of how brain constructs color from wavelengthsSource for "color does not exist in physics" claim
Homo Sapiens Timeline
300,000 Years of Consistent Conditions
**Hublin, J.J., et al. (2017).** "New Fossils from Jebel Irhoud, Morocco and the Pan-African Origin of Homo sapiens." *Nature*, 546(7657), 289-292.
Pushes Homo sapiens origin back to ~300,000 years agoSource for "300,000 years" figure**Stringer, C. (2016).** "The Origin and Evolution of Homo sapiens." *Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B*, 371(1698), 20150237.
Overview of human evolution timelineDiscusses consistent environmental parameters during human evolutionAgriculture at 10,000 Years
**Diamond, J. (1997).** *Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies*. W.W. Norton.
Discusses agricultural revolution beginning ~10,000 years agoCovers consequences for human societies and health**Scott, J.C. (2017).** *Against the Grain: A Deep History of the Earliest States*. Yale University Press.
Critical examination of agricultural transitionDocuments health decline, hierarchy emergence, and labor intensification after agricultureLactose Tolerance as Recent Adaptation
**Burger, J., et al. (2007).** "Absence of the Lactase-Persistence-Associated Allele in Early Neolithic Europeans." *PNAS*, 104(10), 3736-3741.
Shows lactose tolerance evolved recently (last ~7,500 years)Source for "enough to digest milk" claim**Gerbault, P., et al. (2011).** "Evolution of Lactase Persistence: An Example of Human Niche Construction." *Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B*, 366(1566), 863-877.
Comprehensive review of lactose tolerance evolutionExample of rapid cultural-genetic coevolutionFour Hundred Generations
Basic math: 10,000 years ÷ 25 years/generation ≈ 400 generations. This is insufficient time for major psychological adaptations to evolve.
PART TWO: SOCIAL COGNITION AND DUNBAR'S NUMBER
Dunbar's Number and Social Brain Hypothesis
Foundational Research
**Dunbar, R.I.M. (1992).** "Neocortex Size as a Constraint on Group Size in Primates." *Journal of Human Evolution*, 22(6), 469-493.
Original paper establishing correlation between neocortex size and social group size across primatesPredicts human social group size of ~150 based on neocortex ratio**Dunbar, R.I.M. (1993).** "Coevolution of Neocortical Size, Group Size and Language in Humans." *Behavioral and Brain Sciences*, 16(4), 681-735.
Extended analysis including language evolutionDiscusses time constraints on relationship maintenance**Dunbar, R.I.M. (1998).** "The Social Brain Hypothesis." *Evolutionary Anthropology*, 6(5), 178-190.
Comprehensive statement of social brain hypothesisExplains why primate brains are large: tracking complex social relationships**Dunbar, R.I.M. (2010).** *How Many Friends Does One Person Need? Dunbar's Number and Other Evolutionary Quirks*. Faber & Faber.
Accessible summary of research on social group sizeDiscusses implications for modern lifeThe Layered Structure: 5/15/50/150
**Hill, R.A. & Dunbar, R.I.M. (2003).** "Social Network Size in Humans." *Human Nature*, 14(1), 53-72.
Empirically establishes layered structure of human social networksDocuments 5 (support clique), 15 (sympathy group), 50, 150 layers**Zhou, W.X., Sornette, D., Hill, R.A., & Dunbar, R.I.M. (2005).** "Discrete Hierarchical Organization of Social Group Sizes." *Proceedings of the Royal Society B*, 272(1561), 439-444.
Statistical analysis showing discrete layers in social organizationScaling ratio of approximately 3 between layers**Sutcliffe, A., Dunbar, R., Binder, J., & Arrow, H. (2012).** "Relationships and the Social Brain: Integrating Psychological and Evolutionary Perspectives." *British Journal of Psychology*, 103(2), 149-168.
Integrates psychological research on relationships with evolutionary frameworkDiscusses emotional investment across network layersInformation Processing and Time Constraints
**Miritello, G., et al. (2013).** "Time as a Limited Resource: Communication Strategy in Mobile Phone Networks." *Social Networks*, 35(1), 89-95.
Shows communication time is zero-sumAdding relationships reduces time available for existing relationships**Saramäki, J., et al. (2014).** "Persistence of Social Signatures in Human Communication." *PNAS*, 111(3), 942-947.
Shows individuals maintain characteristic social signatures over timeEven when specific relationships change, overall structure remains stableTechnology Cannot Extend Dunbar Limits
**Gonçalves, B., Perra, N., & Vespignani, A. (2011).** "Modeling Users' Activity on Twitter Networks: Validation of Dunbar's Number." *PLoS ONE*, 6(8), e22656.
Analyzes Twitter networksFinds active relationship maintenance still limited to ~100-200 despite platform affordances**Dunbar, R.I.M. (2016).** "Do Online Social Media Cut Through the Constraints That Limit the Size of Offline Social Networks?" *Royal Society Open Science*, 3(1), 150292.
Direct test of whether social media extends network sizeConcludes it does not: "the time and cognitive constraints that limit face-to-face networks also limit online networks"
Neocortex and Brain Plasticity
Musicians Have Different Brains
**Schlaug, G., et al. (1995).** "Increased Corpus Callosum Size in Musicians." *Neuropsychologia*, 33(8), 1047-1055.
Documents structural brain differences in musiciansSource for "musicians have different brains" claim**Gaser, C. & Schlaug, G. (2003).** "Brain Structures Differ between Musicians and Non-Musicians." *Journal of Neuroscience*, 23(27), 9240-9245.
Gray matter differences in motor, auditory, and visuospatial regionsDemonstrates experience-dependent brain plasticityTaxi Drivers Have Different Brains
**Maguire, E.A., et al. (2000).** "Navigation-Related Structural Change in the Hippocampi of Taxi Drivers." *PNAS*, 97(8), 4398-4403.
Famous study showing London taxi drivers have enlarged hippocampiSource for "taxi drivers have different brains" claimDemonstrates brain structure changes with experience**Maguire, E.A., Woollett, K., & Spiers, H.J. (2006).** "London Taxi Drivers and Bus Drivers: A Structural MRI and Neuropsychological Analysis." *Hippocampus*, 16(12), 1091-1101.
Follow-up comparing taxi drivers to bus driversControls for driving experience; spatial navigation practice specifically drives hippocampal changesNeuroplasticity Under Chronic Stress
**McEwen, B.S. (1999).** "Stress and Hippocampal Plasticity." *Annual Review of Neuroscience*, 22, 105-122.
Documents how chronic stress reshapes brain architectureSource for claim that brain differences might be consequences of mismatch**Lupien, S.J., et al. (2009).** "Effects of Stress Throughout the Lifespan on the Brain, Behaviour and Cognition." *Nature Reviews Neuroscience*, 10(6), 434-445.
Comprehensive review of stress effects on brain structure and functionShows chronic stress produces measurable neural changes**Davidson, R.J. & McEwen, B.S. (2012).** "Social Influences on Neuroplasticity: Stress and Interventions to Promote Well-Being." *Nature Neuroscience*, 15(5), 689-695.
Shows social environment shapes brain structureInterventions can reverse some stress-induced changes
PART THREE: HUNTER-GATHERER ANTHROPOLOGY
Band and Tribal Structure
Band Size: 25-50
**Lee, R.B. & DeVore, I. (Eds.). (1968).** *Man the Hunter*. Aldine.
Classic collection establishing ethnographic baseline for hunter-gatherer studiesDocuments typical band sizes of 25-50**Kelly, R.L. (2013).** *The Lifeways of Hunter-Gatherers: The Foraging Spectrum* (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Comprehensive synthesis of hunter-gatherer anthropologyDocuments variation in band size across different environments**Hill, K.R., et al. (2011).** "Co-Residence Patterns in Hunter-Gatherer Societies Show Unique Human Social Structure." *Science*, 331(6022), 1286-1289.
Cross-cultural analysis of 32 hunter-gatherer societiesDocuments residential group composition and sizeTribal Size: ~150
**Dunbar, R.I.M. (1993).** Coevolution paper (cited above)
Shows historical and ethnographic evidence for ~150 as typical community size**Hamilton, M.J., et al. (2007).** "The Complex Structure of Hunter-Gatherer Social Networks." *Proceedings of the Royal Society B*, 274(1622), 2195-2203.
Analyzes social network structure across multiple hunter-gatherer societiesConfirms hierarchical organization with characteristic group sizesMetapopulation: 500-1500
**Wobst, H.M. (1974).** "Boundary Conditions for Paleolithic Social Systems: A Simulation Approach." *American Antiquity*, 39(2), 147-178.
Theoretical analysis of minimum viable population for hunter-gatherersEstimates 500-1500 for genetic and cultural viability**Birdsell, J.B. (1968).** "Some Predictions for the Pleistocene Based on Equilibrium Systems among Recent Hunter-Gatherers." In Lee & DeVore (Eds.), *Man the Hunter*.
Documents dialectical tribe size of approximately 500Discusses intermarriage networks
Immediate-Return Economics
Foundational Work
**Woodburn, J. (1982).** "Egalitarian Societies." *Man*, 17(3), 431-451.
Distinguishes immediate-return from delayed-return economiesArgues immediate-return systems are inherently egalitarian**Woodburn, J. (1988).** "African Hunter-Gatherer Social Organization: Is It Best Understood as a Product of Encapsulation?" In Ingold, Riches, & Woodburn (Eds.), *Hunters and Gatherers 1: History, Evolution and Social Change*.
Extended analysis of immediate-return economic organizationThree to Four Hours of Work Daily
**Sahlins, M. (1972).** *Stone Age Economics*. Aldine.
Classic work arguing hunter-gatherers were "original affluent society"Documents 3-5 hours of food-getting work per day among various groups**Lee, R.B. (1979).** *The !Kung San: Men, Women, and Work in a Foraging Society*. Cambridge University Press.
Detailed time allocation studies among !KungDocuments work patterns and leisure time**Kaplan, H. (2000).** "A Theory of Human Life History Evolution: Diet, Intelligence, and Longevity." *Evolutionary Anthropology*, 9(4), 156-185.
Reviews work effort across foraging societiesIntegrates with life history theoryDemand Sharing
**Peterson, N. (1993).** "Demand Sharing: Reciprocity and the Pressure for Generosity among Foragers." *American Anthropologist*, 95(4), 860-874.
Key paper on demand sharing as distinct from reciprocityDocuments mechanism across multiple societies**Gurven, M. (2004).** "To Give and to Give Not: The Behavioral Ecology of Human Food Transfers." *Behavioral and Brain Sciences*, 27(4), 543-559.
Comprehensive review of food sharing in small-scale societiesAnalyzes when and why sharing occurs
Egalitarian Governance
No Permanent Leaders
**Boehm, C. (1999).** *Hierarchy in the Forest: The Evolution of Egalitarian Behavior*. Harvard University Press.
Comprehensive analysis of egalitarianism in hunter-gatherer societiesDocuments mechanisms that prevent hierarchy: ridicule, disobedience, desertion, execution**Boehm, C. (2012).** *Moral Origins: The Evolution of Virtue, Altruism, and Shame*. Basic Books.
Extends analysis to moral psychologyDiscusses how egalitarian norms are enforcedSituational Leadership
**van Vugt, M., Hogan, R., & Kaiser, R.B. (2008).** "Leadership, Followership, and Evolution: Some Lessons from the Past." *American Psychologist*, 63(3), 182-196.
Reviews leadership in ancestral environmentsDocuments situational, expertise-based leadershipConflict Resolution Cascade
**Lee, R.B. (1979).** *The !Kung San* (cited above)
Documents conflict resolution mechanisms including gossip, ridicule, ostracism**Wiessner, P. (2005).** "Norm Enforcement among the Ju/'hoansi Bushmen: A Case of Strong Reciprocity?" *Human Nature*, 16(2), 115-145.
Detailed analysis of norm enforcement mechanismsDocuments progression from mild to severe sanctions
Child-Rearing Practices
Alloparenting
**Hrdy, S.B. (2009).** *Mothers and Others: The Evolutionary Origins of Mutual Understanding*. Harvard University Press.
Comprehensive analysis of cooperative breeding in humansArgues alloparenting is central to human evolution**Kramer, K.L. (2010).** "Cooperative Breeding and its Significance to the Demographic Success of Humans." *Annual Review of Anthropology*, 39, 417-436.
Reviews evidence for cooperative child-rearingDiscusses demographic implicationsFather Involvement
**Hewlett, B.S. (1991).** *Intimate Fathers: The Nature and Context of Aka Pygmy Paternal Infant Care*. University of Michigan Press.
Documents extensive father involvement among AkaSource for "fathers hold infants more than 20% of daytime" claimMixed-Age Play
**Gray, P. (2011).** "The Decline of Play and the Rise of Psychopathology in Children and Adolescents." *American Journal of Play*, 3(4), 443-463.
Documents decline of mixed-age playArgues this contributes to rising psychopathology**Konner, M. (2010).** *The Evolution of Childhood: Relationships, Emotion, Mind*. Harvard University Press.
Comprehensive review of childhood across culturesDocuments EEA child-rearing patterns
Fire Circles and Daily Rhythm
Evening Firelight Gatherings
**Wiessner, P.W. (2014).** "Embers of Society: Firelight Talk among the Ju/'hoansi Bushmen." *PNAS*, 111(39), 14027-14035.
Documents content of firelight conversationsShows 81% of evening talk is storytelling (vs. 34% daytime)Source for "fire circle" social processing conceptCircadian Alignment
**Roenneberg, T. (2012).** *Internal Time: Chronotypes, Social Jet Lag, and Why You're So Tired*. Harvard University Press.
Documents mismatch between biological and social clocksDiscusses health consequences of circadian disruption
Violence and Mortality
Infant and Child Mortality
**Volk, A.A. & Atkinson, J.A. (2013).** "Infant and Child Death in the Human Environment of Evolutionary Adaptation." *Evolution and Human Behavior*, 34(3), 182-192.
Reviews mortality data across foraging societiesSource for ~27% infant mortality, ~48% childhood mortality figuresLife Expectancy
**Gurven, M. & Kaplan, H. (2007).** "Longevity among Hunter-Gatherers: A Cross-Cultural Examination." *Population and Development Review*, 33(2), 321-365.
Comprehensive analysis of hunter-gatherer mortality and longevitySource for life expectancy figures and survival curvesViolence Rates
**Fry, D.P. (Ed.). (2013).** *War, Peace, and Human Nature: The Convergence of Evolutionary and Cultural Views*. Oxford University Press.
Collection examining violence in small-scale societiesChallenges some assumptions about universal warfare**Wrangham, R.W. & Peterson, D. (1996).** *Demonic Males: Apes and the Origins of Human Violence*. Houghton Mifflin.
Discusses inter-group violence in evolutionary context
PART FOUR: PSYCHIATRIC AND MENTAL HEALTH EVIDENCE
Hunter-Gatherer Mental Health
Key Studies
**Salali, G.D. & Chaudhary, N. (2022).** "Hunter-Gatherers, Mismatch and Mental Disorder." Chapter 5 in *Evolutionary Psychiatry*. Cambridge University Press.
Reviews limited studies on contemporary foragers (Hadza, Aka, San)Concludes lower rates of chronic mental disorders compared to industrialized societiesNotes "very few studies have examined the prevalence of these pathologies among contemporary hunter-gatherer populations"Attributes differences to mismatch with industrial life**Del Giudice, M. (2022).** "Schizophrenia: The New Etiological Synthesis." *Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews*.
States "Schizophrenia is rare or nonexistent in hunter-gatherer populations"Supports evolutionary mismatch hypothesisNotes inflammation differences between foragers and modern populations**JCPP Editorial (2023).** On hunter-gatherer child-rearing and mental health.
Links alloparenting, constant contact, mixed-age play to better outcomesHypothesizes lower chronic conditions in foraging societiesGradient Studies (Partial Modernization)
**Thai Hill Tribe Study (2021).** PMC publication.
Semi-forager population with emerging market integrationFound 16.3% stress symptoms (below Western averages)72.3% had "normal" levelsSymptoms were episodic, not chronicDemonstrates dose-dependent relationship: partial mismatch = partial pathologyEvidence Gap
The research gap itself is significant. We have extensive physical health studies of forager populations but almost no psychiatric epidemiology. This partly reflects there being less chronic pathology to study. This represents a critical research opportunity.
WHO Cross-Cultural Studies
International Pilot Study on Schizophrenia (IPSS)
**World Health Organization. (1973).** *Report of the International Pilot Study of Schizophrenia*. WHO.
10 countries, 1,300+ participantsFound similar prevalence but dramatically different outcomesBetter recovery rates in "developing" countries with stronger social supportLess chronicity, more episodic presentation in traditional societies**Jablensky, A., et al. (1992).** "Schizophrenia: Manifestations, Incidence and Course in Different Cultures. A World Health Organization Ten-Country Study." *Psychological Medicine Monograph Supplement*, 20, 1-97.
Follow-up to IPSS with larger sampleConfirms better outcomes in developing countries**Hopper, K., et al. (Eds.). (2007).** *Recovery from Schizophrenia: An International Perspective*. Oxford University Press.
Synthesizes WHO cross-cultural findingsDiscusses social support as key variableWeissman Cross-National Studies
**Weissman, M.M., et al. (1994).** "The Cross-National Epidemiology of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder." *Journal of Clinical Psychiatry*, 55(Suppl), 5-10.
**Weissman, M.M., et al. (1996).** "Cross-National Epidemiology of Major Depression and Bipolar Disorder." *JAMA*, 276(4), 293-299.
**Weissman, M.M., et al. (1997).** "The Cross-National Epidemiology of Panic Disorder." *Archives of General Psychiatry*, 54(4), 305-309.
Series of studies on psychiatric conditions across nationsNote: All studied societies were agricultural/industrial, not hunter-gathererShows variation in prevalence (especially depression: 2-19%) but all mismatched
Serotonin Model Critique
The Debunking
**Moncrieff, J., et al. (2022).** "The Serotonin Theory of Depression: A Systematic Umbrella Review of the Evidence." *Molecular Psychiatry*, 27(8), 3243-3256.
Comprehensive review finding no consistent evidence for serotonin deficiency in depressionSource for "serotonin deficiency model is debunked" claimPublished in Nature Portfolio journal, widely covered in media**Lacasse, J.R. & Leo, J. (2005).** "Serotonin and Depression: A Disconnect between the Advertisements and the Scientific Literature." *PLoS Medicine*, 2(12), e392.
Earlier critique of serotonin hypothesisDocuments gap between pharmaceutical marketing and evidenceSSRI Mechanism
**Kirsch, I. (2014).** "Antidepressants and the Placebo Effect." *Zeitschrift für Psychologie*, 222(3), 128-134.
Meta-analyses showing small effect sizes for SSRIsDiscusses placebo response as major component
ADHD as Hunter Cognition
Foundational Concept
**Hartmann, T. (1993).** *Attention Deficit Disorder: A Different Perception*. Underwood Books.
Original articulation of "hunter vs. farmer" hypothesis for ADHDArgues ADHD traits were adaptive for hunting/foraging**Jensen, P.S., et al. (1997).** "Evolution and Revolution in Child Psychiatry: ADHD as a Disorder of Adaptation." *Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry*, 36(12), 1672-1681.
Evolutionary analysis of ADHD traitsDiscusses environmental mismatchEmpirical Support
**Eisenberg, D.T., et al. (2008).** "Dopamine Receptor Genetic Polymorphisms and Body Composition in Undernourished Pastoralists: An Exploration of Nutrition Indices among Nomadic and Recently Settled Ariaal Men of Northern Kenya." *BMC Evolutionary Biology*, 8, 173.
DRD4 7R allele (associated with ADHD) beneficial for nomadic Ariaal, detrimental for settledDirect evidence for environment-dependent expression of ADHD-associated traits**Williams, J. & Taylor, E. (2006).** "The Evolution of Hyperactivity, Impulsivity and Cognitive Diversity." *Journal of the Royal Society Interface*, 3(8), 399-413.
Reviews evolutionary perspectives on ADHDDiscusses how traits would be adaptive in different environments
Depression as Accurate Signal
Analytical Rumination Hypothesis
**Andrews, P.W. & Thomson, J.A. (2009).** "The Bright Side of Being Blue: Depression as an Adaptation for Analyzing Complex Problems." *Psychological Review*, 116(3), 620-654.
Argues depression evolved to promote analytical ruminationSuggests it's a response to complex social problems, not malfunctionSocial Navigation Hypothesis
**Hagen, E.H. (2011).** "Evolutionary Theories of Depression: A Critical Review." *Canadian Journal of Psychiatry*, 56(12), 716-726.
Reviews multiple evolutionary theories of depressionDiscusses depression as social communication/bargainingBehavioral Shutdown Model
**Nesse, R.M. (2000).** "Is Depression an Adaptation?" *Archives of General Psychiatry*, 57(1), 14-20.
Proposes depression as evolved response to unpropitious situationsCompares to low mood after loss serving adaptive function
Anxiety as Appropriate Vigilance
Smoke Detector Principle
**Nesse, R.M. (2005).** "Natural Selection and the Regulation of Defenses: A Signal Detection Analysis of the Smoke Detector Principle." *Evolution and Human Behavior*, 26(1), 88-105.
Explains why anxiety system is biased toward false positivesCost asymmetry: missing a threat is more costly than false alarmThreat Detection in Modern Environments
**Öhman, A. & Mineka, S. (2001).** "Fears, Phobias, and Preparedness: Toward an Evolved Module of Fear and Fear Learning." *Psychological Review*, 108(3), 483-522.
Documents prepared learning for ancestral threatsExplains mismatch between evolved threat detection and modern environment
Neuropsychiatric Evolution
**2024 Neuron Review.** Neuropsychiatric evolution.
Persistence of "psychiatric" genetic variants implies non-maladaptive originsSchizophrenia tied to human cognitive evolutionSuggests functional roles in ancestral environments**Polimeni, J. & Reiss, J.P. (2002).** "How Shamanism and Group Selection May Reveal the Origins of Schizophrenia." *Medical Hypotheses*, 58(3), 244-248.
Proposes shamanic role for schizophrenia-spectrum individualsSuggests social integration rather than exclusion in traditional societies**Crow, T.J. (1997).** "Is Schizophrenia the Price That Homo sapiens Pays for Language?" *Schizophrenia Research*, 28(2-3), 127-141.
Proposes schizophrenia as byproduct of language evolutionSuggests it wouldn't exist without human-specific cognitive capacities
Heritability and Brain Differences
Heritability Does Not Equal Disease
**Plomin, R. & von Stumm, S. (2018).** "The New Genetics of Intelligence." *Nature Reviews Genetics*, 19(3), 148-159.
Discusses heritability of cognitive traitsSource for understanding heritability estimates**Turkheimer, E. (2000).** "Three Laws of Behavior Genetics and What They Mean." *Current Directions in Psychological Science*, 9(5), 160-164.
First law: All human behavioral traits are heritableImplies heritability alone cannot define pathologyNeuroticism Heritability
**Vukasović, T. & Bratko, D. (2015).** "Heritability of Personality: A Meta-Analysis of Behavior Genetic Studies." *Psychological Bulletin*, 141(4), 769-785.
Meta-analysis finding neuroticism heritability ~50-60%Source for specific heritability estimate
PART FIVE: ENVIRONMENTAL INTERVENTION EVIDENCE
Nature and Mental Health
Comprehensive Reviews
**PMC Planetary Health Review (2023).** Mental health and planetary health nexus.
Nature-based interventions reduce anxiety/depressionEffects independent of medication/therapyMechanisms include lowered cortisol, physical activity**Bratman, G.N., et al. (2019).** "Nature and Mental Health: An Ecosystem Service Perspective." *Science Advances*, 5(7), eaax0903.
Comprehensive review of nature-mental health connectionDiscusses mechanisms and policy implicationsLongitudinal Evidence
**ScienceDirect Longitudinal Study (2025).** Australia, N=10,000.
High green space exposure consistently lowers psychological distressEffects robust in disadvantaged groupsNo medication/therapy confound**Alcock, I., et al. (2014).** "Longitudinal Effects on Mental Health of Moving to Greener and Less Green Urban Areas." *Environmental Science & Technology*, 48(2), 1247-1255.
Moving to greener areas improves mental healthEffects persist over timeIEEP Report
**IEEP (2021).** EU study on nature and wellbeing, N=2,500.
Time in nature reduces anxiety and lonelinessNo clinical intervention requiredSelf-reported gains consistent across demographicsSpecific Mechanisms
**ScienceDirect Study (2023).** Environmental quality and mental distress.
Both perceived and objective environmental quality predict lower distressPerceived quality (meaning/social aspects) stronger predictorSuggests EEA-like social/meaning elements matter beyond just physical environment
Co-Living and Social Structure Studies
Shanghai COVID Study
**Habitat International (2025).** Shanghai, N=1,200.
Co-residence reduced anxiety (GAD-7 scores -15% vs. solo living)Multi-generational setups lowered chronic stressShared support as primary mechanismMulti-Generational Living
**Wiley Review (2025).** Global youth, 10 studies, N=~5,000.
Multi-generational co-living improved mental health (lower PHQ-9)Effects strongest in intentional setups with shared activitiesStructure matters more than mere co-presenceOlder Adults
**Taylor & Francis Study (2024).** U.S./Europe, N=800 older adults.
Co-residential living cut psychological distress (K6 scale) by 20-30%Benefits from reduced isolationImportant: hierarchy in groups worsened outcomesCohousing Systematic Review
**BMC Systematic Review (2023).** 10 studies, N=3,500.
Cohousing improved QoL/wellbeing (SF-36 scores up 10-15%)Physical and mental health gainsIndependent of medicationSocial bonds as primary mechanismLiving Arrangements During Crisis
**PMC Study (2022).** Europe, N=2,000.
Co-living reduced loneliness (UCLA scale -25%)Solo living correlated with worse mental healthCrisis conditions amplified effectsLiving Alone and Depression
**Frontiers Study (2025).** U.S., N=4,000 adults.
Living alone linked to higher major depression (PHQ-9 >10: 6.4% solo vs. 3% co-resident)Social determinants amplified mismatchesHousing Stability
**MDPI Study (2021).** Italy, N=500 young adults.
Housing instability raised anxietyStable shared setups lowered anxietyPurpose and belonging as mechanismsChosen Family
**ResearchGate Study (2021).** U.S. LGBTQ+ youth during COVID, N=1,000.
Co-living with chosen family improved wellbeingShifts to mismatched solo living worsened depression"Chosen family" as tribe proxy
Rat Park Studies
Original Research
**Alexander, B.K., Beyerstein, B.L., Hadaway, P.F., & Coambs, R.B. (1981).** "Effect of Early and Later Colony Housing on Oral Ingestion of Morphine in Rats." *Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior*, 15(4), 571-576.
Rats in enriched "Rat Park" environment consumed far less morphine than isolated ratsSource for "Rat Park experiments showed this decades ago"**Alexander, B.K. (2010).** *The Globalization of Addiction: A Study in Poverty of the Spirit*. Oxford University Press.
Extended analysis of addiction as response to dislocationArgues addiction is primarily environmental, not pharmacological
PART SIX: SOCIAL MEDIA AND TECHNOLOGY EFFECTS
Social Media and Mental Health
Loneliness Increasing with Usage
**Twenge, J.M., et al. (2018).** "Increases in Depressive Symptoms, Suicide-Related Outcomes, and Suicide Rates Among U.S. Adolescents After 2010 and Links to Increased New Media Screen Time." *Clinical Psychological Science*, 6(1), 3-17.
Documents correlation between screen time and depression/suicidalitySource for "loneliness increasing with usage" claim**Haidt, J. & Allen, N. (2020).** "Scrutinizing the Effects of Digital Technology on Mental Health." *Nature*, 578(7794), 226-227.
Reviews evidence linking social media to mental health declineDiscusses dose-response relationships**Haidt, J. (2024).** *The Anxious Generation: How the Great Rewiring of Childhood Is Causing an Epidemic of Mental Illness*. Penguin Press.
Comprehensive argument linking phone-based childhood to mental health declineDocuments attention fragmentation, social comparison, addictionVariable Ratio Reinforcement
**Schüll, N.D. (2012).** *Addiction by Design: Machine Gambling in Las Vegas*. Princeton University Press.
Documents how variable ratio reinforcement creates addictionApplied to social media design**Alter, A. (2017).** *Irresistible: The Rise of Addictive Technology and the Business of Keeping Us Hooked*. Penguin Press.
Documents deliberate use of addiction psychology in tech designSource for "most addictive schedule known to psychology"
Pornography Effects
Erectile Dysfunction in Young Men
**Park, B.Y., et al. (2016).** "Is Internet Pornography Causing Sexual Dysfunctions? A Review with Clinical Reports." *Behavioral Sciences*, 6(3), 17.
Reviews evidence linking internet pornography to sexual dysfunctionDocuments rising rates of erectile dysfunction in young men**Voon, V., et al. (2014).** "Neural Correlates of Sexual Cue Reactivity in Individuals with and without Compulsive Sexual Behaviours." *PLoS ONE*, 9(7), e102419.
Brain imaging study showing similar patterns to drug addictionDocuments neural sensitization to pornographic stimuliPair Bonding Effects
**Brand, M., et al. (2016).** "Integrating Psychological and Neurobiological Considerations Regarding the Development and Maintenance of Specific Internet-Use Disorders." *Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews*, 71, 252-266.
Discusses how supernormal stimuli affect reward circuitryImplications for real-world relationship capacity
Dating Apps and Choice Paralysis
Paradox of Choice
**Schwartz, B. (2004).** *The Paradox of Choice: Why More Is Less*. HarperCollins.
Documents how excessive options reduce satisfactionApplied to relationships and consumer behavior**Finkel, E.J., et al. (2012).** "Online Dating: A Critical Analysis from the Perspective of Psychological Science." *Psychological Science in the Public Interest*, 13(1), 3-66.
Comprehensive review of online dating researchDiscusses search costs, matching algorithms, and choice overloadGhosting and Commitment
**LeFebvre, L.E. (2017).** "Phantom Lovers: Ghosting as a Relationship Dissolution Strategy in the Technological Age." In *The Impact of Social Media in Modern Romantic Relationships*. Lexington Books.
Documents rise of ghosting as normDiscusses how technology enables avoidance of social consequences
Parasocial Relationships
Foundational Research
**Horton, D. & Wohl, R. (1956).** "Mass Communication and Para-Social Interaction: Observations on Intimacy at a Distance." *Psychiatry*, 19(3), 215-229.
Original paper defining parasocial relationshipsDocuments one-way emotional bonds with media figures**Giles, D.C. (2002).** "Parasocial Interaction: A Review of the Literature and a Model for Future Research." *Media Psychology*, 4(3), 279-305.
Comprehensive review of parasocial researchDiscusses functions and consequencesModern Implications
**Chung, S. & Cho, H. (2017).** "Fostering Parasocial Relationships with Celebrities on Social Media: Implications for Celebrity Endorsement." *Psychology & Marketing*, 34(4), 481-495.
Documents how social media intensifies parasocial bondsDiscusses implications for relationship capacity
PART SEVEN: INTENTIONAL COMMUNITY EVIDENCE
Twin Oaks
Official Documentation
**Twin Oaks Community.** twinoaks.org
Official website with governance documents, visitor informationLabor credit system documentation**Kinkade, K. (1973).** *A Walden Two Experiment: The First Five Years of Twin Oaks Community*. William Morrow.
Founding member's account of early community development**Kuhlmann, H. (2005).** *Living Walden Two: B.F. Skinner's Behaviorist Utopia and Experimental Communities*. University of Illinois Press.
Academic analysis including Twin OaksAcademic Studies
**2010 DU Thesis.** On ritual and solidarity at Twin Oaks.
Documents stress reduction through community mechanismsNotes high life satisfaction in internal surveys
East Wind
Official Documentation
**East Wind Community.** eastwind.org
Official website with governance and economic informationNut butter business documentationCommunity Reports
**2023 Commune Life Blog.** Discussion of shared labor and burnout.
Anecdotal evidence of reduced burnout through labor distribution**Reddit AMA.** East Wind members' responses.
Documents member experiences including reduced anxiety from belonging
Kibbutz Movement
Academic Research
**1985 PubMed Study.** Psychiatric incidence in kibbutz-raised vs. urban peers.
Found higher psychiatric rates at age 25 in kibbutz-raisedAttributed to specific child-rearing practices (children's houses creating attachment issues)Not evidence against collective structure per se**Abramitzky, R. (2008).** "The Limits of Equality: Insights from the Israeli Kibbutz." *Quarterly Journal of Economics*, 123(3), 1111-1159.
Documents privatization effectsBrain drain, adverse selection as equality erodedSource for post-privatization outcomes**Aviezer, O., et al. (1994).** "Children of the Dream Revisited: 70 Years of Collective Early Child Care in Israeli Kibbutzim." *Psychological Bulletin*, 116(1), 99-116.
Reviews outcomes of collective child-rearingNuanced findings on attachment and developmentHistorical Analysis
**Spiro, M.E. (1956).** *Kibbutz: Venture in Utopia*. Harvard University Press.
Classic anthropological study of kibbutz life**Near, H. (1992).** *The Kibbutz Movement: A History (Vol. 1 & 2)*. Littman Library.
Comprehensive history of movement
Auroville
Academic Studies
**2013 ICSA Proceedings.** Structure/anti-structure tensions.
Documents "communitas" erosion from governance struggles**2023 GEN Report.** Global Ecovillage Network analysis.
Notes "information overload" distress in large groupsDocumentation
**Auroville Foundation.** auroville.org
Official information about governance structure and challenges**2024 Governance Disputes.** Various news sources on land and visa control conflicts.
Documents ongoing governance struggles
Community Failure and Success Rates
Failure Rates
**2023 Oregon State Thesis.** Lost Valley persistence study.
Analyzes factors in community survivalOrganizational memory and turnover management as keys**Shenker, B. (1986).** *Intentional Communities: Ideology and Alienation in Communal Societies*. Routledge.
Analyzes why many communities failGovernance issues as primary factorSuccess Factors
**2024 GEN Survey.** Global Ecovillage Network.
Egalitarian practices and conflict aid as success factorsDocuments long-term survivors' characteristics**Christian, D.L. (2003).** *Creating a Life Together: Practical Tools to Grow Ecovillages and Intentional Communities*. New Society Publishers.
Practical guide based on analysis of successes and failures
Dunbar Limits in Communities
Group Thresholds
**Life With Alacrity (2009).** Article on group thresholds.
Explicit analysis of why groups struggle beyond certain sizesTies success to Dunbar observance**Allen, C. (2004).** "The Dunbar Number as a Limit to Group Sizes." *Life With Alacrity Blog*.
Documents burnout and governance failures at scale without layering
PART EIGHT: AUTOMATION AND UBI
Automation and Job Displacement
Current Trends
**Frey, C.B. & Osborne, M.A. (2017).** "The Future of Employment: How Susceptible Are Jobs to Computerisation?" *Technological Forecasting and Social Change*, 114, 254-280.
Estimates 47% of US jobs at high risk of automationWidely cited analysis of automation impact**Arntz, M., Gregory, T., & Zierahn, U. (2016).** "The Risk of Automation for Jobs in OECD Countries." *OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers*, No. 189.
More conservative estimates accounting for task variation within occupationsAI Impact
**Acemoglu, D. & Restrepo, P. (2020).** "Robots and Jobs: Evidence from US Labor Markets." *Journal of Political Economy*, 128(6), 2188-2244.
Empirical analysis of robot adoption and employment
UBI Research
Pilot Studies
**Kangas, O., et al. (2019).** "The Basic Income Experiment 2017-2018 in Finland." Ministry of Social Affairs and Health, Finland.
Finnish UBI experiment findingsImproved wellbeing but limited employment effects**Forget, E.L. (2011).** "The Town with No Poverty: The Health Effects of a Canadian Guaranteed Annual Income Field Experiment." *Canadian Public Policy*, 37(3), 283-305.
Mincome experiment in Dauphin, ManitobaDocuments health improvements during income guaranteeTheoretical Analysis
**Standing, G. (2017).** *Basic Income: And How We Can Make It Happen*. Penguin.
Comprehensive argument for UBIDiscusses meaning and purpose concerns**van Parijs, P. & Vanderborght, Y. (2017).** *Basic Income: A Radical Proposal for a Free Society and a Sane Economy*. Harvard University Press.
Academic case for UBIAddresses common objections
Meaning Without Work
Retirement and Purpose
**Rohwedder, S. & Willis, R.J. (2010).** "Mental Retirement." *Journal of Economic Perspectives*, 24(1), 119-138.
Documents cognitive decline associated with retirementSuggests purposeful activity is protectiveLottery Winners
**Brickman, P., Coates, D., & Janoff-Bulman, R. (1978).** "Lottery Winners and Accident Victims: Is Happiness Relative?" *Journal of Personality and Social Psychology*, 36(8), 917-927.
Classic study showing lottery winners not happier long-termHedonic adaptation and baseline happiness
PART NINE: TREATMENT AND THERAPY
A-CHESS and Anti-Addiction Design
A-CHESS Research
**Gustafson, D.H., et al. (2014).** "A Smartphone Application to Support Recovery from Alcoholism: A Randomized Clinical Trial." *JAMA Psychiatry*, 71(5), 566-572.
Randomized trial showing A-CHESS reduces alcohol useTime-boxed engagement rather than infinite hooksSource for "anti-addiction design exists"Digital Therapeutics
**Mohr, D.C., et al. (2013).** "The Behavioral Intervention Technology Model: An Integrated Conceptual and Technological Framework for eHealth and mHealth Interventions." *Journal of Medical Internet Research*, 15(6), e191.
Framework for designing therapeutic technologyDiscusses engagement vs. outcome optimization
Therapy Effectiveness
Long-Term Outcomes
**Shedler, J. (2010).** "The Efficacy of Psychodynamic Psychotherapy." *American Psychologist*, 65(2), 98-109.
Reviews therapy effectiveness evidenceDiscusses mechanisms of changeSocial Context
**Cacioppo, J.T. & Cacioppo, S. (2014).** "Social Relationships and Health: The Toxic Effects of Perceived Social Isolation." *Social and Personality Psychology Compass*, 8(2), 58-72.
Documents importance of social connection for mental healthImplies limits of individual therapy without social change
PART TEN: ADJACENT RESEARCHERS
Evolutionary Mismatch Researchers
**Mark van Vugt** (VU Amsterdam)
Leadership evolution, mismatch in organizationsMultiple publications on evolutionary psychology applications**Pieter van den Berg** (van Vugt's group, VU Amsterdam)
2017 CDPS review on adaptive lagEvolutionary mismatch in social psychology**David Sloan Wilson** (Binghamton University / Prosocial World)
Multilevel selection, evolution of cooperation2024 mismatch tutorial**Glenn Geher** (SUNY New Paltz)
Evolutionary psychology applicationsPsychology Today contributions on mismatch**James Holland Jones** (Stanford)
Life history theory, mismatch frameworks2022 article on multi-scale tracking
Intentional Community Researchers
**Joshua Lockyer** (Arkansas Tech University)
Ethnography of intentional communities2007 UGA thesis on sustainability and utopianism**Albert R. Carter** (Independent)
Governance structures for communities2023 guide on anti-hierarchy mechanics**Karen Litfin** (University of Washington)
Ecovillages and sustainability*Ecovillages: Lessons for Sustainable Community* (2014)
Evolutionary Psychiatry
**Randolph Nesse** (Arizona State University)
Founder of evolutionary medicine/psychiatry*Good Reasons for Bad Feelings* (2019)**Paul Andrews** (McMaster University)
Analytical rumination hypothesisDepression as adaptation research**Marco Del Giudice** (University of New Mexico)
Life history theory, psychopathology2022 synthesis on schizophrenia
Environmental Psychology
**William Sullivan** (University of Illinois)
Nature and mental healthUrban green space research**Ming Kuo** (University of Illinois)
Nature deficit, restorative environmentsSystematic reviews of nature-health connection
PART ELEVEN: SUPPORTING CONCEPTS
Fission-Fusion Dynamics
**Aureli, F., et al. (2008).** "Fission-Fusion Dynamics: New Research Frameworks." *Current Anthropology*, 49(4), 627-654.
Comprehensive review of fission-fusion in primates including humansDocuments flexibility of group composition**Grove, M. (2009).** "Hunter-Gatherer Movement Patterns: Causes and Constraints." *Journal of Anthropological Archaeology*, 28(2), 222-233.
Analyzes movement and group composition changesDocuments natural splitting and reforming of bands
Egalitarianism Mechanisms
**Wiessner, P. (1996).** "Leveling the Hunter: Constraints on the Status Quest in Foraging Societies." In Wiessner & Schiefenhövel (Eds.), *Food and the Status Quest*.
Documents mechanisms that prevent status accumulationRidicule, gossip, demand sharing**Erdal, D. & Whiten, A. (1996).** "Egalitarianism and Machiavellian Intelligence in Human Evolution." In Mellars & Gibson (Eds.), *Modelling the Early Human Mind*.
Discusses tension between dominance drives and egalitarian enforcementProposes "counter-dominance" as human adaptation
Pharmakon Concept
**Derrida, J. (1981).** "Plato's Pharmacy." In *Dissemination*. University of Chicago Press.
Original philosophical discussion of pharmakonPoison/cure dual nature**Stiegler, B. (2010).** *Taking Care of Youth and the Generations*. Stanford University Press.
Applies pharmakon concept to technologySource for technology as simultaneously harmful and beneficial
Internal Audience and Social Anxiety
**Leary, M.R. & Kowalski, R.M. (1995).** *Social Anxiety*. Guilford Press.
Comprehensive treatment of social anxietyDiscusses imagined evaluation and audience effects**Gilovich, T., Medvec, V.H., & Savitsky, K. (2000).** "The Spotlight Effect in Social Judgment: An Egocentric Bias in Estimates of the Salience of One's Own Actions and Appearance." *Journal of Personality and Social Psychology*, 78(2), 211-222.
Documents how people overestimate others' attention to themSource for "phantom critics" concept
Open Loops and Rumination
**Zeigarnik, B. (1927).** "On Finished and Unfinished Tasks." In W.D. Ellis (Ed.), *A Source Book of Gestalt Psychology*.
Original research on incomplete tasks remaining in memoryFoundation for understanding open loops**Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B.E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008).** "Rethinking Rumination." *Perspectives on Psychological Science*, 3(5), 400-424.
Comprehensive review of rumination researchDiscusses adaptive and maladaptive rumination
Supernormal Stimuli
**Tinbergen, N. (1951).** *The Study of Instinct*. Oxford University Press.
Original research on supernormal stimuli in animalsBirds preferring larger-than-normal eggs**Barrett, D. (2010).** *Supernormal Stimuli: How Primal Urges Overran Their Evolutionary Purpose*. W.W. Norton.
Applies supernormal stimulus concept to modern lifeCovers food, pornography, media
PART TWELVE: RESEARCH OPPORTUNITIES
Critical Gaps Requiring Investigation
Hunter-Gatherer Psychiatric Epidemiology
No large-N psychiatric epidemiology exists for genuinely matched forager populations. The research gap itself is telling - partly because there wasn't much chronic pathology to study. This represents the most critical research opportunity.
**Needed:** Systematic assessment in remaining hunter-gatherer populations using culturally appropriate methods. Partnership with anthropologists already studying these populations.
Environmental Intervention Trials
**Needed:** Studies creating conditions matching the spec sheet (stable group of 50, shared meals, visible purpose, circadian alignment) and measuring symptom changes without medication or therapy. Controlling for expectation effects.
Intentional Community Mental Health
**Needed:** GAD-7/PHQ-9 tracking in existing communities with governance documentation. Comparison to controls matched on demographics. Analysis of communities with vs. without framework-aligned governance.
Longitudinal Studies of Modernization
**Needed:** Following populations like Thai hill tribes as market integration deepens. Predicting rising chronic conditions as mismatch increases.
Technology and Dunbar Limits
**Needed:** Studies testing whether technology extends functional network size or merely creates illusion of extension. Measuring relationship quality metrics across network sizes.
Falsification Criteria
The framework makes falsifiable claims. Evidence that would contradict it:
1. **Chronic psychiatric conditions at similar rates in matched forager populations** - Not post-agricultural, not colonization-stressed. 10-20% lifetime depression prevalence matching Western rates.
2. **Environmental intervention fails to reduce symptoms** - Studies where stable groups, nature exposure, visible purpose don't improve mental health independent of medication/therapy.
3. **Large flat communities thriving long-term** - Groups at 500+ members without Dunbar-layer structure, maintaining egalitarian governance over decades.
**Current status:** No evidence meeting these criteria has been found. Gaps are research gaps, not contradictions.
PART THIRTEEN: THE EXPLOITATION ECONOMY
Overview
This section documents sources for claims about how industries deliberately exploit evolutionary mismatches for profit. The exploitation is not conspiracy - it's documented business strategy, studied in academia, taught in business schools, and defended in shareholder meetings.
Social Media: Deliberate Addiction Design
Facebook Internal Research
**Haugen, F. (2021).** Whistleblower testimony to U.S. Congress, October 2021.
Former Facebook data scientist revealed internal research showing Instagram harms teen mental healthDocuments showed company knew about negative effects and chose not to act"The company's leadership knows how to make Facebook and Instagram safer but won't make the necessary changes because they have put their astronomical profits before people."**Wall Street Journal. (2021).** "The Facebook Files." Investigative series, September 2021.
Published internal Facebook documentsRevealed Instagram's own research: "We make body image issues worse for one in three teen girls"Documented company awareness that platform increases suicidal ideation among teensAddiction by Design
**Harris, T. (2016).** "How Technology Hijacks People's Minds." Tristan Harris essays and presentations.
Former Google design ethicistDocuments deliberate use of persuasive technologySource for understanding "attention engineering" as professional practice**Eyal, N. (2014).** *Hooked: How to Build Habit-Forming Products*. Portfolio/Penguin.
Industry manual for creating addictive productsExplicitly teaches variable ratio reinforcement, trigger designSource for understanding addiction as deliberate design goal**Fogg, B.J. (2003).** *Persuasive Technology: Using Computers to Change What We Think and Do*. Morgan Kaufmann.
Stanford Persuasive Technology Lab founderAcademic foundation for behavior design industryMany social media executives trained at "Fogg camp"Variable Ratio Reinforcement
**Schüll, N.D. (2012).** *Addiction by Design: Machine Gambling in Las Vegas*. Princeton University Press.
Comprehensive documentation of how slot machines create addictionVariable ratio reinforcement as "most addictive schedule"Documents transfer of these techniques to tech industry**Alter, A. (2017).** *Irresistible: The Rise of Addictive Technology and the Business of Keeping Us Hooked*. Penguin Press.
Documents deliberate application of gambling psychology to appsInterviews with designers and executivesPull-to-refresh as slot machine leverExecutive Admissions
**Parker, S. (2017).** Interview at Axios event, November 2017.
Facebook founding president: "God only knows what it's doing to our children's brains""We need to sort of give you a little dopamine hit every once in a while""It's a social-validation feedback loop... exactly the kind of thing that a hacker like myself would come up with"**Palihapitiya, C. (2017).** Stanford Graduate School of Business talk, November 2017.
Former Facebook VP of User Growth: "The short-term, dopamine-driven feedback loops we've created are destroying how society works""I feel tremendous guilt""I don't use this shit" / "I don't let my kids use this shit"
Pharmaceutical Industry
No Biomarkers
**Lacasse, J.R. & Leo, J. (2005).** "Serotonin and Depression: A Disconnect between the Advertisements and the Scientific Literature." *PLoS Medicine*, 2(12), e392.
Documents gap between marketing claims and evidenceNo blood test, brain scan, or biomarker for any psychiatric condition**Frances, A. (2013).** *Saving Normal: An Insider's Revolt Against Out-of-Control Psychiatric Diagnosis, DSM-5, Big Pharma, and the Medicalization of Ordinary Life*. William Morrow.
Former DSM-IV Task Force chairCritiques diagnostic inflation and pharma influenceDSM and Pharmaceutical Conflicts
**Cosgrove, L., Krimsky, S., Vijayaraghavan, M., & Schneider, L. (2006).** "Financial Ties between DSM-IV Panel Members and the Pharmaceutical Industry." *Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics*, 75(3), 154-160.
Found 56% of DSM-IV panel members had financial ties to pharmaceutical companies100% of panels for mood disorders and schizophrenia had pharma tiesSource for "DSM panels have financial ties to pharmaceutical companies"**Cosgrove, L. & Krimsky, S. (2012).** "A Comparison of DSM-IV and DSM-5 Panel Members' Financial Associations with Industry: A Pernicious Problem Persists." *PLoS Medicine*, 9(3), e1001190.
Found 69% of DSM-5 task force members had ties to pharmaceutical industryProblem worsened from DSM-IV to DSM-5Ghostwriting and Research Control
**Healy, D. & Cattell, D. (2003).** "Interface between Authorship, Industry and Science in the Domain of Therapeutics." *British Journal of Psychiatry*, 183(1), 22-27.
Documents ghostwriting of medical journal articlesPharmaceutical companies write papers, academics sign as authors**Sismondo, S. (2007).** "Ghost Management: How Much of the Medical Literature Is Shaped Behind the Scenes by the Pharmaceutical Industry?" *PLoS Medicine*, 4(9), e286.
Systematic analysis of pharmaceutical influence on medical literature"Publication planning" as industry practiceOpioid Epidemic Documentation
**Meier, B. (2018).** *Pain Killer: An Empire of Deceit and the Origin of America's Opioid Epidemic* (Updated ed.). Random House.
Comprehensive documentation of Purdue Pharma's roleDeliberate downplaying of addiction riskMarketing practices that created epidemic**Keefe, P.R. (2021).** *Empire of Pain: The Secret History of the Sackler Dynasty*. Doubleday.
Documents Sackler family role in opioid crisisMarketing strategies that pushed addictive substancesSource for "paid doctors per prescription" claim**U.S. Department of Justice. (2020).** Purdue Pharma plea agreement, October 2020.
Company pled guilty to federal criminal chargesAdmitted to "ichemic schemes" to increase opioid prescriptions$8.3 billion settlement (largely unpaid due to bankruptcy)Direct-to-Consumer Advertising
**Frosch, D.L., Krueger, P.M., Hornik, R.C., Cronholm, P.F., & Barg, F.K. (2007).** "Creating Demand for Prescription Drugs: A Content Analysis of Television Direct-to-Consumer Advertising." *Annals of Family Medicine*, 5(1), 6-13.
Analysis of pharmaceutical advertising contentDocuments emotional appeals and lifestyle promisesU.S. is one of only two countries allowing DTC pharma advertising
Food Industry
Hyperpalatability Engineering
**Moss, M. (2013).** *Salt Sugar Fat: How the Food Giants Hooked Us*. Random House.
Comprehensive investigation of food industry practicesDocuments "bliss point" optimizationSource for claims about deliberate addiction engineeringInterviews with food scientists describing formulation goals**Kessler, D.A. (2009).** *The End of Overeating: Taking Control of the Insatiable American Appetite*. Rodale.
Former FDA CommissionerDocuments how food is engineered to override satiety"Conditioned hypereating" as designed outcome"Bliss Point" Research
**Witherly, S.A. (2007).** *Why Humans Like Junk Food*. iUniverse.
Food scientist explains formulation scienceDocuments optimization for maximum craving"Bet you can't eat just one" as engineering specificationIndustry Research Funding and Lobbying
**Nestle, M. (2015).** *Soda Politics: Taking on Big Soda (and Winning)*. Oxford University Press.
Documents beverage industry lobbying and research fundingContradictory research funded to create doubtFighting sugar taxes and labeling requirements**Kearns, C.E., Schmidt, L.A., & Glantz, S.A. (2016).** "Sugar Industry and Coronary Heart Disease Research: A Historical Analysis of Internal Industry Documents." *JAMA Internal Medicine*, 176(11), 1680-1685.
Revealed sugar industry paid scientists to shift blame to fatFunded research to downplay sugar's role in heart diseaseDocuments 50 years of industry influence on nutrition science
Pornography Industry
Supernormal Stimuli Research
**Brand, M., et al. (2016).** "Integrating Psychological and Neurobiological Considerations Regarding the Development and Maintenance of Specific Internet-Use Disorders." *Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews*, 71, 252-266.
Discusses supernormal stimuli and reward circuitryDocuments neural sensitization patterns**Park, B.Y., et al. (2016).** "Is Internet Pornography Causing Sexual Dysfunctions? A Review with Clinical Reports." *Behavioral Sciences*, 6(3), 17.
Documents rising erectile dysfunction in young menCorrelates with high-speed internet pornography accessSource for "erectile dysfunction epidemic" claimPair Bonding Effects
**Zillmann, D. & Bryant, J. (1988).** "Pornography's Impact on Sexual Satisfaction." *Journal of Applied Social Psychology*, 18(5), 438-453.
Early research on pornography and relationship satisfactionDocuments decreased satisfaction with real partners**Wright, P.J., Tokunaga, R.S., & Kraus, A. (2016).** "A Meta-Analysis of Pornography Consumption and Actual Acts of Sexual Aggression in General Population Studies." *Journal of Communication*, 66(1), 183-205.
Meta-analysis of pornography effectsDocuments association with decreased relationship satisfactionEscalation and Tolerance
**Kühn, S. & Gallinat, J. (2014).** "Brain Structure and Functional Connectivity Associated With Pornography Consumption: The Brain on Porn." *JAMA Psychiatry*, 71(7), 827-834.
Brain imaging study showing structural differences in heavy usersDocuments tolerance development requiring escalation
Dating Apps
Business Model Analysis
**Weigel, M. (2016).** *Labor of Love: The Invention of Dating*. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
Historical analysis of dating as industryDocuments commodification of relationships**Ansari, A. & Klinenberg, E. (2015).** *Modern Romance*. Penguin Press.
Discusses paradox of choice in dating appsDocuments how unlimited options prevent commitmentUser Outcome Data
**Rosenfeld, M.J., Thomas, R.J., & Hausen, S. (2019).** "Disintermediating Your Friends: How Online Dating in the United States Displaces Other Ways of Meeting." *PNAS*, 116(36), 17753-17758.
Documents how apps have become primary meeting methodNotes shift away from social network-embedded meeting**Hinge Internal Data (2019).** Company blog posts and reports.
Dating app company's own data showing most users don't find long-term partners"Designed to be deleted" marketing acknowledges product typically fails
News Media
Fear and Outrage Monetization
**Dobelli, R. (2020).** *Stop Reading the News: A Manifesto for a Happier, Calmer and Wiser Life*. Sceptre.
Documents negative effects of news consumptionAnalyzes business model driving fear content**Toff, B. & Nielsen, R.K. (2018).** "'I Just Google It': Folk Theories of Distributed Discovery." *Journal of Communication*, 68(4), 636-657.
Documents how news creates chronic activation without resolutionOpen loops by designAttention Economy Analysis
**Wu, T. (2016).** *The Attention Merchants: The Epic Scramble to Get Inside Our Heads*. Knopf.
Historical analysis of attention as commodityDocuments evolution from newspapers to digital platforms"If it bleeds, it leads" as economic logic**Oreskes, N. & Conway, E.M. (2010).** *Merchants of Doubt*. Bloomsbury Press.
Documents deliberate creation of uncertaintyManufacturing doubt as media strategy
Self-Help Industry
Industry Economics
**Salerno, S. (2005).** *SHAM: How the Self-Help Movement Made America Helpless*. Crown.
"Self-Help and Actualization Movement" critiqueDocuments repeat customer dependency"The most loyal customers are the ones for whom it doesn't work"**McGee, M. (2005).** *Self-Help, Inc.: Makeover Culture in American Life*. Oxford University Press.
Academic analysis of self-help industryDocuments individual solution framing for systemic problemsMarket Size
**Marketdata LLC. (2021).** "The U.S. Market for Self-Improvement Products & Services."
Market research reportDocuments $13+ billion U.S. marketGrowth depends on repeat customers
Gambling Mechanics in Gaming
Loot Box Research
**Zendle, D. & Cairns, P. (2018).** "Video Game Loot Boxes Are Linked to Problem Gambling: Results of a Large-Scale Survey." *PLoS ONE*, 13(11), e0206767.
Documents correlation between loot box spending and problem gamblingIdentifies gambling mechanics in games**Drummond, A. & Sauer, J.D. (2018).** "Video Game Loot Boxes Are Psychologically Akin to Gambling." *Nature Human Behaviour*, 2(8), 530-532.
Analysis finding loot boxes meet psychological criteria for gamblingDocuments presence in games played by children"Whale" Targeting
**Luton, W. (2013).** *Free-to-Play: Making Money From Games You Give Away*. New Riders.
Industry manual for monetizing free gamesDocuments "whale" targeting strategySmall percentage of users generate most revenue
Advertising Industry
Global Spending
**Statista. (2024).** "Advertising spending worldwide."
Documents global advertising expenditure exceeding $700 billion annuallySource for "$700B/year" claimPsychological Manipulation
**Packard, V. (1957).** *The Hidden Persuaders*. David McKay.
Classic exposé of advertising psychologyDocuments use of psychological research to manipulate consumers**Cialdini, R.B. (2006).** *Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion* (Revised ed.). Harper Business.
Documents persuasion principles used in advertisingIndustry manual for psychological manipulationManufactured Inadequacy
**Kilbourne, J. (1999).** *Can't Buy My Love: How Advertising Changes the Way We Think and Feel*. Touchstone.
Documents how advertising creates insecurity to sell products"You didn't feel bad about your body until they showed you..."**Wolf, N. (1991).** *The Beauty Myth*. William Morrow.
Documents advertising's role in creating body dissatisfactionManufacturing inadequacy as business strategy
The Suppression: Incentive Structures
Research Funding Allocation
**Angell, M. (2004).** *The Truth About the Drug Companies: How They Deceive Us and What to Do About It*. Random House.
Former NEJM editor documents pharmaceutical influenceResearch funding flows to drug development, not environmental intervention**Whitaker, R. (2010).** *Anatomy of an Epidemic: Magic Bullets, Psychiatric Drugs, and the Astonishing Rise of Mental Illness in America*. Crown.
Documents how pharmaceutical funding shapes research prioritiesEnvironmental interventions receive minimal fundingTraining and Curriculum
**Carlat, D. (2010).** *Unhinged: The Trouble with Psychiatry*. Free Press.
Psychiatrist critiques training and practiceDocuments pharmaceutical influence on medical education"15-minute med checks" as standard practiceNo Conspiracy, Just Incentives
**Mazzucato, M. (2018).** *The Value of Everything: Making and Taking in the Global Economy*. PublicAffairs.
Economic analysis of value extractionDocuments how market incentives shape what gets funded and built
*This section documents the exploitation economy - not as conspiracy but as documented business practice. The sources include industry insiders, investigative journalism, academic research, and government investigations. The pattern is consistent: evolutionary psychology is understood and weaponized for profit, while frameworks that would reduce suffering (and therefore reduce customers) receive minimal attention or funding.*
*This document compiles sources for all major claims in the framework.*
*Many claims derive from well-established research traditions with extensive supporting literature beyond what's cited here.*
*Where specific studies are referenced in the framework, sources are provided. Where claims reflect scientific consensus, foundational works are listed.*
*This document is released into public domain alongside the framework.*
*Last updated: December 2025*